• Geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) technology emerges as a dominant containment paradigm, consolidated through empirical testing, acceptance criteria, and chemical compatibility analyses that illuminate performance under exposure to leachates and aggressive solutions [2], [3], [4], [9].

• Multiscale environmental modeling in geoenvironmental engineering crystallizes as a methodological pattern, aligning design/formulation with results through hierarchical, climate-sensitive simulations (GEM) that bridge local processes to regional/climate scales [6], [7].

• Geochemical and hydrogeochemical methodologies converge to diagnose groundwater quality, pollution pathways, and remediation strategies, integrating landfill/industrial waste signals, land-use effects, and saltwater intrusion with geophysical corroboration [10], [12], [14], [15], [18], [20].

• Subsurface remediation and geoengineering trend emphasizes soil modification and stabilisation techniques, including deep soil mixing, slope stabilization, and characterisation of underground structures, as a coherent set of engineering responses to subsurface challenges [11], [13], [16].

• Waste containment and contaminant immobilization patterns reveal a thematic knot around treatment materials, liner integrity, and leachate/wastewater quality management, spanning geopolymeric immobilisation concepts and landfill/tailings water studies [1], [9], [19], [20].